20131004 (3)英文作文書寫要點 國立政治大學英語系 楊炎肇

5. Comparison and Contrast比較與對比: 日常生活當中，我們常使用比較和對比的思想來決定許多事。例如，要念哪所大學，購買哪一部汽車，或是到底要開車或坐公共汽車或飛機到度假地點。比較與對比的文章，有時會參雜價值批判的成分在其中。

A. 比較 (comparison) 的作文中 à 強調的是相同點 (similarities)
       對比 (contrast) 的文章中    à 注重的是差異性 (differences)

B. 常用字詞、句型:
(I) 比較(comparison)
1. This small gadget is very similar to iPad.
2. Hollywood is synonymous with the American show business.
3. This new trade agreement coincides with our nation’s interest.
4. Her deeds were not compatible with her words.
5. The second statement is not consistent with the first.
6. ESL and EFL have certain aspects in common.
7. He doesn't resemble either of his parents.
8. I can see some resemblance(s) between him and his father.
9. Comprehension can be equated with competence.
10. A meter is not quite equivalent to a yard.
11. The company’s latest model of stylish laptop debuted this season
is almost identical to (with) the old one last year.
12. The demand for fossil fuel has decreased; likewise, /
correspondingly, / by the same token, / in the same vein / following the same argument, the emission of carbon dioxide has diminished.
13. 特殊句型  *A is to B what X is to Y    A之於B 猶如X之於Y
     = A is to B as X is to Y = As A is to B so is X to Y
        = What A is to B that is X to Y
14. Reading is to the mind as exercise is to the body.
15. What resolution is to a man that is a compass to a ship.
16. Education is essential to everyone what the sun is to everything.
17. As a desert is like a sea so is a camel like a ship.

   (II) 對比(contrast)
1. The region’s linguistic and cultural identity is rather distinctive   from that of the rest of the country.
2. The ability to speak differentiates humans from other animals.
3. American societies differs considerably/ markedly / tremendously / enormously from a number of other societies.  
4. Gun regulations for the mentally ill vary widely from state to state.
5. Empathy is not synonymous with sympathy.
6. Contrary to our stereotypes, introverts can have an inner strength of character that extroverts do not have.
7. As opposed to / Unlike / In contrast to (with) the extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life.
8. The two hypotheses could be seen as paradoxical / contradictory.
9. Current approaches to pronunciation contrast starkly / sharply with the early approaches.
10. Your proposal runs counter to what is required by the manager.
11. These approaches are not necessarily in conflict or totally incompatible.
12. His way of life contradicts his stated principles.

C. ㄧ般說來，比較和對比的文章結構有兩種：
(I) Block Method (或是稱為One-Side-at-a-Time): 作者有時可以完
  全只著重某一邊，然後在段落的第二部分，再完全處理另一邊。
          段落範例:

Block Method (One-Side-at-a-Time)

I.  Introduction: The differences between vacationing in the mountains or  
              at the beach
II. Mountain
  A.  Climate
  B.  Types of Activities  
  C.  Location
III. Beach
  A.  Climate
  B.  Types of Activities  
  C.  Location  
IV. Conclusion



(II) Point-by-Point (或是稱為Alternating Method): 在這種模式下，  
  作者在同ㄧ個比較或對比的基礎論點上，交叉反覆，一次一個論點，
  雙邊討論。段落範例:

Point-by-Point (Alternating Method)

    I. Introduction: Differences between vacationing in the mountains or at    
                 the beach
    II. Climate
    A.  Mountains
    B.  Beach
    III. Types of activities
    A.  Mountains
    B.  Beach
    IV. Location
    A.  Mountains
    B.  Beach
     V. Conclusion

















6. Definition解釋、定義: 在正式寫作中，有時需要書寫一個段落，解釋某個辭
彙的意思是什麼，或我們在特定情況下是如何使用該辭彙。
A. 依照Martin L. Arnaudet 和Mary Ellen Barrett合著之
Paragraph Development: A Guide for Students of English，建議使用以下公式：

term is class + wh-word / that + specific details

(I) term 指的是所要定義的詞。
(II) class說明該詞所屬之性質、級層、種類。
(III) wh-word/that 是關係代名詞，引導子句。
(IV) specific details 對於該詞給予特定資訊，以區別相同種類的其他詞彙。
舉例說明:
A wrist watch is a mechanical, time-telling device which is worn on a
band about the wrist.

(I) Term: wristwatch
(II) Class: device
(IV) Distinguishing features: 1. mechanical
                      2. time-telling
3. worn on a band about the wrist.
B. 常用字詞、句型:
1. The term orphan refers to a child whose parents are dead or missing.
2. The word holiday signifies a period of time during which people don’t have to work
3. The most advanced degree that a college graduate can receive is called / is known as a Ph. D.
4. Heroes and heroines are, by definition, men and women distinguished by uncommon courage, achievements, and self-sacrifice made most often for the benefit of others.
5. Carbon dioxide might be thought of as the most commonly seen gas contributing to the Greenhouse Effect.
6. The term ADHD, a neurobehavioral developmental disorder, is primarily characterized defined as "the co-existence of attentional problems and hyperactivity.
C. 段落範例:
   A wristwatch is a mechanical device which is used for telling time.  Its main advantage over other types of time-telling devices(such as clocks, sundials, or hourglasses) is that it is small enough to be worn on the wrist, so that one can easily know the time by looking down. Wristwatches come in various shapes and sizes, but all have one thing in common: a band or strap with which they may be attached to the wrist.  In the United States, where time is money, practically everyone wears a wristwatch.
 
 以上引自Martin L. Arnaudet 和Mary Ellen Barrett合著之
    Paragraph Development: A Guide for Students of English










7. Argumentation論證:本類型的文章主要目的是，作者必須提出一個令人信
  服的理由，並加以申論之。作者在文中提出一個論點，這個論點必須來自正  
  確數據，以說服讀者，使之認為是有效的。此數據可由事實和統計數字取得。
  如同前述之「舉例類型」文章，可靠消息來源的引述，目的是為了建立權威。
  具教育性和非偏見的來源引述應公正地運用。一個合理的語氣亦是必要的。


A. 以下為大綱模式，講解各段須注意事項
I. Write the introduction  引言
A. Introduce the topic
   介紹主題、論點
B. Inform the reader of your point of view
   告知讀者你的觀點
C. Entice the reader to continue with the rest of the paper
   吸引讀者繼續閱讀文章其餘部分
D. Focus on three main points to develop
   重點放在三個主要論點上
      II. Establish flow from paragraph to paragraph建立段與段之間的聯結
B. Keep your voice active  保持積極的語調
C. Quote sources to establish authority 引用來源，以建立權威
C. Stay focused on your point of view throughout the essay
             專注於你的觀點，並貫徹整個文章
D.  Focus on logical arguments 專注於邏輯的論據
E.  Don't lapse into summary不要陷入摘要
     III. Conclusion結論
        A.   Summarize, then conclude, your argument
             總結，然後得出結論以及你的論點
        B.   Refer to the thesis statement as well as the main points
             回歸到論文的聲明以及要點
             1. Does the conclusion restate the main ideas?
               是否結論有重申我的主要思想？
             2. Reflect the succession and importance of the arguments
               文章是否反映段落間的承接，及展現重要性的論點？
             3. logically conclude their development?
               文章是否有邏輯地總結其發展？


B. 論證類型的文章當中，作者必須提出一個中心論點。這個論點來自正確數
  據及證據，輔以邏輯性的運用策略，以說服讀者，使之認為是有效的。在  
  推論時 我們常犯一些邏輯性謬論 (logical fallacies)。邏輯性謬論可能是
  多方面的，通常它們涉及一個錯誤的推理或創造一些幻想，使一個壞的論
  證變成好的，或反之，好的論證變成壞的。

常見謬誤如下:
(I) False Analogy錯誤類比: 錯誤類比認為，兩個東西在某方面有相同
  點，因此，這兩個東西在其他方面也是完全一樣的。
l A Honda and a Ford are both cars, so a Ford can be an energy-saving car just like a Honda is.
    (Ford 和Honda都是汽車，但Ford並不一定和Honda一樣省油。)  

(II) Tautology (Circular Definition) 同義反複；套套邏輯:
  用不同的詞語，且是不必要地，重覆地說了同樣的一件事情。
l They spoke in turn, one after the other.
(in turn 和one after the other同義。)
l He sat there alone all by himself.
(alone和all by himself同義。)

(III) Ad Hominem (“against the person”) 人身攻擊: 是一個常見的
   謬論，不對作者的意見作評論，而對於他人做不相關的批評。簡言  
  之，因人廢言，對人不對事。
l I will not vote for the legislator because he is poorly-dressed.
(票不投他不因為政見，而是因為他穿著極差。)
l Your idea about abortion is wrong because you're a priest.
(因為你是牧師，一定從宗教立場出發，故你對墮胎意見完全錯誤。)

(IV) Bandwagon (“appeal to the people”) 樂隊花車效應: 是一種  
   邏輯謬誤、只因為很多人相信或實踐，便認為一個思想有價值。
   常被稱為「從眾」，代表人類害怕在社會中被孤立，因而向社會其
   他主流價值觀多數靠攏的一種過程。
l Nine out of ten of my contemporaries oppose the bill; hence, it is a bad idea. (大多數人都反對這法案，不代表它就是不好的。)
l Nine out of ten of the legislators favor the bill; thus, it is a good idea. (大多數立委都贊成這法案，也不代表它就是好的。)

(V) Either-or fallacy (false dichotomy) 錯誤二分法: 此邏輯謬誤只
   考慮極端，亦即「非此即彼」的邏輯去解釋上下、黑白、對錯、愛
   惡等。（例如：你若非喜歡它，就是不喜歡它。他如不是有罪，就
   是無罪。）兩個極端之間也包含很多「可能」。
l “You are either with us or against us.”   —George W. Bush
  (George W. Bush在二次波灣戰爭，入侵伊拉克時說的話，忽視中
  立國的立場。)
l Every person is either wholly good or wholly evil.
  (人非全善及是全惡，忽略中間的可能性。)
(VI) Begging the Question丐詞:一種將結論放在問題中詢問對方的邏輯。此種語句把假設的結論直接(其實是尚未經實證的問題)擺在首位。
l You should drive on the right side of the road because that is  
  what the law says, and the law is the law.
         (顯然，在道路右側駕駛，是由法律規定。 所以，當有人問，為什
麼我們應該這樣做，他們正在質疑法律。但如果按照此法，我只是
說「因為這是法律」，我其實以已經假設法律是有效的。)
l Abortion is the unjustified killing of a human being and as
  such is murder. Murder is illegal. So abortion should be
  illegal.
  (墮胎是殺人，殺人是違法，所以墮胎也是違法。假設的前  
  提是墮胎是違法。但有時並非如此。)







B. 段落範例:

Why I Attend Soochow University

   There were several reasons why I decided to attend Soochow University (SCU).  First of all  the tuition was reasonable. The university had a deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to my parents. Another reason  was the fact that SCU hires only the finest teachers to teach in its graduate program. My chief reason , however, was SCU’s mandatory work/study program in TESOL. The university requires all TESOL students to gain practical experience by working in local high schools while they are still working on their degrees. I knew that this would prepare me to better use of the skills I had learned in the classroom.
以上改寫自Martin L. Arnaudet 和Mary Ellen Barrett合著之
Paragraph Development: A Guide for Students of English